This is Part 3 of the article on the Indian arts. Here are Part 1 and Part 2. 

 

Classification of the kalās

 

In the present study, the names and explanations are derived from the kannada work catuṣṣaṣṭikalegaLu by Dr T S Satyavati¹. 

 

Vātsyāyana’s kamasutram is the oldest known source for the popular classification of 64 kalās. However before and after this, there have many attempts at classifying the kalās precisely under broad domains. It is quite obvious that the list has thus been shrunk or expanded or modified many a time. Branches of study like purāṇas, aesthetics, fine arts, poetics or even exhaustive works like Mahābhāratam were regarded as upavedas.

 

Manufacturing boats, chariots, instruments, vessels and textiles, sculpture, carving and many more that contributed to the ancient and medieval Indian economy were referred to as arthavedas. Nātyasāstram refers to theatre and related arts forms as nepathyakalas. Daṇḍi’s Daśakumāracaritam refers to singing, dance, painting, gandhakalā (preparing sandal cosmetics), puṣpakalā (flower art), gambling and games as veśa-kalās (they were particularly pursued and promoted by skilled courtesans). Sanskrit classics mention various vidyas in various contexts- Śudraka’s Mrcchakatikā mentions vaiśiki-kalās as derived from Rgveda, Sāmaveda, gaṇita(mathematics) and hasti-śikṣā (elephant training). 

 

There is also the classification of puruṣakalās (masculine arts), strikalās (feminine arts) Baṇa’s Kādambari enlists 48 puruṣakalās like patraccedya, dārukarma, gāndharva śāstram, ratna parikṣā, pustaka-vyāpara, āyurveda, yantra, śakuniruti jnāna, dyuta, dāru-karma, vāstu-vidyā, Indrajāla, Kathā, nāṭaka, Akhyāyika, Kāvya, Sarvalipi jnāna, Desa Bhāsa-jnāna, Chandas and others. Pānchala’s classification comprises 24 Karmāsraya-kalās, 200 Dyutāsraya kalās, 16 śayanopacāra kalās and 4 uttara-kalās. Others like Māyakritam(magic), Samvāhanam(body-massage), Ratna-parikṣā  (gemology), Mānavidhi (measuring) and Sivyam (tailoring) got added to the lists². Samavāya-sutra mentions 87 kalās while Abhyadeva analyses that only 72 of them are independent and that the remaining may be merged into them. The celebrated Lalitavistara mentions 86 arts. Kalpāntara-vācyani enlists 72 arts. Thus, time and again the list of kalās has been modified, expanded, shrunk or even changed significantly to make identify them more precisely under the road classifications³. 

 

However the most popular grouping has always been that of the 64 kalās derived from Vātsyāyana. Śukranitisāra elaborates upon the 64 kalās while Someshwara in his abhilaṣitārtha-chintāmaṇi (mānasollāsa) emphasizes that a scholar who presents purāṇa-prasangas (episodes) must possess the knowledge of the 64 kalās- (Kathāvinoda Sl 2) 

 

One of the broad classifications of the list of 64 kalās is

 

Lalita-kalās- Fine arts like music, dance and painting that are pursued for pure aesthetic pleasure are identified as lalitakalās.

 

Kuṣalakalās- The artistic pursuits that also served as means for livelihood came to be known as kuṣala kalās. Eg- basket weaving, tailoring, jewellery making, etc.

 

Upayuktakalās- The kalās that prominently are utilitarian in nature and could serve as fruitful occupations are upayuktakalās. Eg- building, carpentry, tailoring, laying tiles.  

 

In course of time others like Aindrajāla (magic), nimitta-jnāna (knowledge of interpreting omens), vyāyāma (physical exercise), sutra-kreeda (thread-painting), calitaka-yoga (art of disguise or voice modulations) were squeezed into this list, although their nature all the time doesn’t fit into the descriptions of the classifications. Eventually vainayiki (ethics) also joined the list.

 

However, the most popular classification under the list of 64 kalās has been as below:

 

1. Vijnāna kalās (scientific arts) 

2. Lalitakalās and kusalakalās (fine arts and crafts)

3 Vāṇijyakalās (commercial arts) 

4. Vinodakalās (entertainment arts) and 

5. Sankirṇa kalās (complex arts)

 

But keeping in mind the dynamic nature of the Indian knowledge forms and considering the relentless experiments and mutual exchanges⁴, neither can this list be frozen and termed as final in number or nature. However, for many practical reasons and also probably with due accord with the cultural and spiritual significance that the number 64 holds for the Indian heart, no other list has enjoyed the wide popularity and acceptance that the 64 kalās list has, down the ages.

 

The use of the term Lalitakalās is popularly in use even today. Rāmāyaṇam, Mahābhāratam, purāṇas and the classical literature of all times, along with the historical documents and inscriptions of all times, contain plenty of references to arts that come under the lalita-kalā category. These are seen as extremely popular to all sections of the society. One of the important qualifications of a poet is even said to be vaicakṣaṇam kalāsu ca (proficiency in arts) It is evident that poets pursued deep study of lalitakalās, kāmaśāstram and dharmaśāstras.

 

Painting, sculpture, music, dance and related arts like costume-making, instrument-manufacturing, jewellery-making, embroidery, garland-making and others. Grammar, poetics, aesthetics and others like jyotiṣa (astrology), candas (prosody), philosophy, ethics, polity, medicine, carpentry, cooking and others are seen as very popular and prosperous artistic occupations across the length and breadth of Bharat. 

 

Great poets like Kālidāsa repeatedly refer to lalitakalās and even weave in song-dance episodes in their works- Singer Hamsapadikā’s enchanting songs and princess Mālavikā’s spectacular dance performance are popular episodes in Kalidasa’s works. Bhāsa, Śudraka, Daṇdi, Harṣa and most other poets have in a big or small way entertained episodes of fine arts. All these reflect how popular fine arts were in the classical period.

 

However, the practice and popularity of many kalās have grown or shrunk at different times. Moreover the terrible mass destruction of universities, temples and kingships by the Abrahamic invaders caused unimaginable loss of documents, Wherever they took over the political reins, they destroyed the native guru-paramparās, gurukulams and libraries ruthlessly and even banned many conventional knowledge systems. Forcible mass conversions dealt the final death blows to the kuladharmas of the victims, discontinuing many a scholastic and artistic lineage. 

 

But interestingly, the fact that despite such mass destruction, a lot more remains intact or in parts, reveals the vastness and dynamism of these knowledge forms. From whatever remains in literary documents and living traditions, we can still draw a gross sketch of the nature, structure and practice of the kalās. Infact, a detailed compilation and study of each of these kalās could amount to enormous information. 

 

Here we shall only have a quick glimpse into the content of the kalās-

 

1. Vijnāna kalā

 

While the western approach considers kalā (art) and vijnānam (science) as different branches of study, somewhat totally disconnected, the Bhāratiya paramparā considers every methodical branch of study as a śāstram. Lalitakalās and vijnānakalās are always considered as potentially supplementary to each other. Therefore while bhoutasāstra (physics), gaṇitam (mathematics), rasāyanam (chemistry) are śāstras, so are fine arts like sangitam (music), kāvya (poetics), chandas (prosody) and nātyam (dance-drama)! 

 

Vijnāna-kala (Science) is about arriving at truth, through repeated observation and inference of facts and then framing theories, for documentation and further probe. Lalitakalā (fine art) is the fruit of imagination, creativity and idealism. It is a rich expression of the aesthetic sense dormant in the human mind. Every vijnānam has the elements of innovation and every kalā eventually gets framed into a śāstram. Lakṣaṇikaranam (methodical documentation) of any of these makes it a śāstram. While facts, logic and experiment dominate the vijnāna-kalās, aesthetic enjoyment and creative endeavour dominate the lalitakalās. 

 

In the Bharatiya-paramaparā, lakṣaṇikaranam never tends to never clip the wings of innovation and experimentation. While relentless and dispassionate enquiry into truth is the hallmark of vijnānakalā, an unbroken pursuit of rasa experience is the essentials of lalitakalās. The numerous branches, diversities, styles and subcategories in almost every śāstram are examples for this freedom to probe, experiment and innovate.

 

a. Aindrajālayoga

 

Aindrajāla-yoga is the art of magic. It is also called yakṣiṇi-vidyā. It comprises a range of topics from simple hand tricks upto causing serious visual illusions and hallucinations! The age old skills and techniques of this systematic branch of study are documented in the treatise Aindrajālatantram. 

 

The name aindrajāla is derived from ‘Indrasya jāla’ (Indra’s net). Indra is a popular deity of the Vedic times. Indra was supposed to have used this art to woo and distract the sages or demons from penance. Many examples from literature as well as living traditions reveal that aindrajālam was a popular profession for a very long time. 

 

Mahābhāratam records an illusion that Lord Krishna initiated on Duryodhana and his group, in the court of Hastinapura. The same episode is elaborated in Bhasa’s classic Dutakāvyam as well. Poetic works like Dandi’s Daśakumāracarita and Harṣa’s Ratnāvali describe magic shows. A magician shows the moon on the earth, mountains in the sky, fire in the water, the dark night at noon, the Gods and so on to mesmerize everyone! In course of his salutations, the magician acknowledges Sambara and Indra as the exponents of Sambarimāya or Aindrajālaki (the art of magic). To this day, Indian traditional magic is taught in native guru-paramparās.

 

b. Kaucumārāsva-yoga: 

 

Kaucumārāsva-yoga is a system that promotes health and stamina. Koucumāra can be traced to this yantra-mantra-upāsana in the lists of Vātsyāyana and others. The Oupaniṣadika adhikaraṇa of kāmasutram, explains common features of citrāśvayoga and Kaucumārayoga. Rajaśekhara’s Kāvyamimāmsa mentions Yantra-mantra-upāsana as one of the vidyās that Lord Śiva teaches to his sixtyfour disciples. 

 

Notable amount of medical knowledge is integral to kaucumāra. It involves acumen and training in distinguishing edible and non-edible herbs and shrubs and recognizing their medical and non-medical applications. Kaucumāra is a parallel remedy system for ailments which do not yield to general supplements or formal medications. 

 

Koucumāra-yoga which is an outcome of rich observation and experience of tribal and rural experts, medicals, travellers and medical experts has been supplement to Ayurvedic treatment. The popular home remedies in the homes are indeed based on the inputs from the age old art of koucumāra.

 

Koucumāra prescribes diet and remedies for both prevention and cure. Disorders like vāta (gas), pitta (bile) and kapa (phlegm), headache, common cold, vomiting, dysentery and many others are treated effectively. Koucumāra even explains the uses of poison along with and cure for poisoning. 

 

Mālavikāgnimitram describes an episode when the jester pretends to be bitten by a snake. Just for fun, a maiden explains to him about a dreadful ‘traditional treatment’ for that, mentioning great texts like Vāgbhatiya, vaidya chandrodaya as the sources for that! 

 

c) Vicitra-śāka-yuṣa-bhakṣya-vikārakriya and pānaka-rasa-rāgāsavayojana 

This refers to the culinary arts. In the bhāratiya tradition, food is regarded as a natural medicine. Staple diet, regional, seasonal and occasional food items all carry specific nutritional properties that sustain life and health. Cooking is an important aspect of human life and involves hygiene, nutrition needs, taste, measure and quality. It is a śāstram, (both an art and a science!) nurtured by talent, training, insights and experience.

Sanskrit texts like Kṣema-kutuhalam, Bhojana-kutuhalam and pākadarpaṇam and the kannada treatise supaśāstra by Mangarasa elaborate upon the art of cooking. In the celebrated lexicon Mānasollāsa, the chapters Annopabhoga and pāniyopabhoga contain many recipes and details of their nutritional attributes, the edible and non-edible nature of ingredients used in vegetarian and non-vegetarian food and others.

  

The text mentions five types of cooked food namely Bhojya (boiled), Bhakṣya (fried), peya (beverages), lehya (fermented) and cooṣya (food that is licked or sucked) and the six tastes namely madhura (sweet), amla (sour), lavana (salt), katu (spicy), kasāya (astringent) and tikta (bitter). The text complies a list of regular food items along with that of occasional and rare food items. Most of these food items still continue as the popular menu in south Indian kitchens⁵. Many fruit juice recipes are mentioned too. The value of adding to them cardamom and sugar, herbs and concoctions are explained.

 

The text not only elaborates upon the taste and flavour aspects but also advices on- how intake of water during meals must be limited, so as to enhance digestion and how the ten varieties of natural mineral waters⁶ enhance digestion and how regularity and punctuality is necessary in food intake and how hygiene is of utmost importance while cooking, serving or consuming food.

 

The cooking skills of king Nala and prince Bhima mentioned in the Mahābhāratam are well known. While Pāndavas were in hiding at Virāṭa’s kingdom towards the end of their exile, Bhima even worked as cook at the royal kitchen. The jesters in Sanskrit poetry are usually portrayed as gluttons! In his work Śivalilārṇava, the poet Nilakanṭadikṣitar with a pinch of humour describes a list of delicious savouries that were served during the mega marriage of princess Minākṣi. He even mocks the devatās for not being as fortunate as the humans in tasting such varieties of delicacies! 

 

Footnotes:

1. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan publication, Sanskrit for youth series 
2. There is a list of 64 kalās compiling Mahilā-guṇas(virtues of women) like Nrtya, Oucitya, Citra, Vāditra, Mantra, Tantra, Jnāna, Vijnāna……..ācaragopana, Vaidyakakriyā….Anjanayoga, Curṇayoga, Hastalāghava, Vācana-pātava…., Sakalā-bhāṣa-viśeṣa, Veeṇā-nināda,…… Antākṣarikā, Prasna-prahelikā, etc. Hueber’s Chinese translation refers to 47 arts enlisted in Ashwaghosa’s ‘sutrālankara’(9th chapter). Rāmachandra, the commentator of Lakṣmaṇa Kavi’s Campu-Rāmāyaṇam derives from that a list of 19 kalās related to tantra, mantra and siddhividyās. Pāncala-bābhravya enlists the 64 kalās related to śrṇgāra (erotics). Vātsyāyana adds 40 more to it, raising the number to 108.
3. Yasodhara adds further more to Vātsyāyana’s list! The jayamaṇgala commentary on Kamasutram refers to the 64 kalās. Śridharabh bhāsya of Bhāgavatam mentions the same list acknowledging that it was based on Śaivatantram.
4. We must take note that, before the colonial interventions Indian society was boundlessly innovative with the kalā pursuit, and even during the traumatic dark ages of Islamic and Christian rule, it continued its kalās and kuladharmas with determination. Post-independence, despite the apathy of the left oriented policies of the Nehruvian rule, and the leftist exercises to eclipse, devalue and crush the native knowledge forms, and despite the massive digestion of many Indian art forms by the Abrahamic agenda in modern times, and despite lack of enough patronage and glamour, despite the shrinking markets for many conventional kalas, still, many of the 64 kalās, continue to exist in full or in parts! The credit goes purely to the selfless endeavour of individuals and communities who have held preserved their kuladharma amidst all these odds!
5. payasam, maṇḍige, polika, puri, dosas, kaḍubu, iḍli, caṣkuli, garage, vaḍa, gojju and others are mentioned.
6. tender-coconut water, varksa, divya, nadeya, sarasa, bhouma, canda, taḍaga and oudbhida.

 

 

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• Science of Temples65
• Hindu Philosophy65
• Indic Knowledge Systems65

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