(This paper was presented in a Seminar organized by Department of Sanskrit Studies, University of Hyderabad on “Samskrit in Modern context”, February 11-13, 2008)

Introduction

There are about a lakh and half manuscripts in public repositories and in private collections in Tamilnadu and Kerala. Of them 12, 250 manuscripts are related to science. Of these 3,500 are independent science texts. Just 230 of them have seen the light of print. To quote Dr.K.V.Sharma who headed the team that conducted the manuscripts survey, the result of which is given above, “It would mean that scholars and historians of India have all along been wallowing in 7% of texts as the whole and sole of science texts produced in the land...  ”¹

This is the state of knowledge about Ancient Indian scientific texts. Lesser known is the fact that there was a methodology or a manual in place, for construction of scientific and theoretical texts in India. It is the doctrine of Tantrayukti.

Scholars have rendered Tantrayukti in various terms,

1.  ‘Methodology in Sanskrit texts on Science’ – K.V.Sharma²
2.  ‘Forms of Scientific argument’ – S.C.Vidyabhushana ³
3.  ‘Plan of a treatise’ – Shamashastry⁴
4.   ‘Method of treatment, maxims for the interpretation of textual topics’ – Esther Solomon⁵
5.   ‘Formal elements which gave form to a scientific work’ – Gerhard Obberhammer ⁶
6.   ‘Methodology of theoretico-scientific treatises in Sanskrit – Dr.W.K.Lele ⁷
7.  ‘Methodology and technique, which enable one to compose and interpret scientific treatises correctly and intelligently’. – N.E.Muthuswamy (TYV) ⁸
8.  ‘An expedient in the writing of science – Surendra Nath Mittal ⁹

The above statements would suffice to describe what Tantrayukti is all about.

Tantrayukti

Tantrayukti is a compound of two words in Samskrit namely Tantra and Yukti.

Tantra has a wide range of meanings. One definition of the term is

तनोति विपुलानर्थान्‌ तत्त्वमन्त्रसमन्वितान्‌।

त्राणा कुरुते यस्मात्‌ तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ।। ¹⁰

Tantra can be termed as that which discusses and details subjects and concepts and also that which protects.

Further

तत्रायुर्वेद: शाखा विद्या सूत्रं ज्ञानं शा़ूां क्षणं तन्त्रमित्यनर्थान्तरम्‌ । ¹¹

Tantra is synonymously used with āyurveda, a branch of Veda, education, aphorism, knowledge, śāstra and definition.

Thus, etymological and conventional usages point to the fact that Tantra is used to denote a systematic work of literature.

And yukti is …

युज्यन्ते सङ्‌कल्प्यन्ते संबध्यन्ते परस्परमर्था: सम्यक्तया प्राकरणिकेऽभिमतेऽर्थे विरोधव्याघातादिदोषजातमपास्य अनयेति युक्ति:। ¹²

“… that which removes blemishes like impropriety, contradiction, etc., from the intended meaning and thoroughly joins the meanings together” is called yukti.  

Thus, the compound Tantra-yukti denotes those devices that aid the composition of a text in a systematic manner to convey intended ideas clearly.

The Tantrayukti List 

Tantrayukti-s are given as a list in ancient texts. Some texts define and illustrate their usage in the text while others merely produce the list. The oldest available Tantrayukti list (32^* devices) of Arthaśāstra ¹³ is as follows

“ अधिकरणं (Topic), विधानं (statement of contents), योग: (employment of sentences), पदार्थ: (meaning of the word), हेत्वर्थ: (reason),  उद्देश: (mention), निर्देश: (explanation), उपदेश: (advice), अपदेश: (reference), अतिदेश: (application), प्रदेश: (indication), उपमानं (analogy), अर्थापत्ति: (implication), संशय: (doubt), प्रस:: (situation), विपर्यय: (contrary), वाक्यशेष: (completion of a sentence), अनुमतं (agreement), व्यख्यानं (emphasis), निर्वचनं (derivation), निदर्शनं (illustration), अपवर्ग: (exception), स्वसंज्ञा (technical term), पूर्वपक्ष: (prima facie view), उत्तरपक्ष: (correct view), एकान्त: (invariable rule), अनागतावेक्षणं (reference to a future statement), अतिक्रन्तावेक्षणं (reference to a past statement), नियोग: (restriction), विकल्प: (option), समुदाय: (combination), ऊह्यं (what is understood  )  इति। ”

Salient Features of Tantrayukti doctrine

Tantrayukti doctrine

1. Held the sway for over 1,500 years as the methodology of composition of texts of all scientific and theoretical treatises.
2. Had pan Indian influence.
3. Touches upon all fundamental aspects in the construction of a compact treatise.
4. Can be adopted and adjusted according to the requirements of a treatise. (Customize-able)

Let us consider above four points in detail

1. Held sway for over 1,500 years

Tatnrayukti was compiled possibly as early as in the 6^th century B.C.E .¹⁴ Texts belonging to various periods and disciplines have made use of these yuktis. A chronological presentation is attempted below:

(i) Arthaśāstra

It is Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya that first gave a full-fledged treatment of Tantrayukti.

It is a known fact that Arthaśāstra is an ancient Indian work on polity and statecraft. The last adhikaraëa of Kauṭilya Arthaśāstra has been styled Tantrayukti, which defines and illustrates thirty-two Tantrayukti-s. There are divergent views about the date of Kauṭilya. The pendulum swings between fifth century B.C.E and seventh century C.E. Some scholars say that the text was composed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, i.e., between 321 B.C.E and 296 B.C.E¹⁵ e. But, generally 5^th century BCE is accepted as the period of composition of the text.  

(ii) Nyāyasūtrabhāṣya

Vātsyāyana, the commentator of Nyāyasūtra, is also familiar with Tantrayukti-s. He quotes a Tantrayukti namely anumata while discussing the fourth sütra of the first ähnika in the first chapter of Gautama’s Nyäyasütra. The date of Nyāyasūtrabhāṣya is generally accepted to be 4^th century B.C.E.

(iii) Carakasaṁhitā

Carakasaṁhitā comes next in the order of chronology. In the verses 41 – 45 of the twelfth chapter of the siddhisthāna, thirty-six Tantrayukti-s are enumerated. The sequence of enumeration of Tantrayukti-s in Carakasaṁhitā differs from that of Arthaśāstra. Nomenclatures of some of the yukti-s are also not similar. Caraka flourished around First Century B.C.E

(iv) Suśrutasaṃhitā

Suśrutasaṃhitā is a renowned work on ancient Indian surgery. It has been written in the form of questions and answers between Dhanvantari and Suśruta. The period of composition of   Suśrutasaṃhitā is 4^th century C.E. The author has in the sixty-fifth chapter listed thirty-two Tantrayukti-s. Though the number of yukti-s is same as that of Arthaśāstra, the order of enumeration is different.   

(v) Aṣṭāṅgasaṅgrahaḥ

It is a text on äyurveda written by Vägbhaöa . In the 50th chapter of the Uttarasthāna of this work are mentioned thirty-six Tantranayukti-s. Vāgbhaṭa is said have existed in the period between 3^rd and 4^th century CE. Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya, another work by the same author, also mentions Tantrayukti-s.

(vi) Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

In this purāṇa among so many topics, thirty-two Tantrayuktis are also defined but not illustrated. These Tantrayukti-s appear in the sixth chapter of the third khaṇḍa.  The work is dated between 4th and 5^th century C.E.

(vii) Yuktidīpikā

It is a rare commentary on Sāṅkhyakārikā of iśvarakṛṣṇa.  It is approximately dated around 6^th century C.E. Ram Chandra Pandya, who has critically edited this text, tentatively names one ‘Rājā’as the author of the work. In the introduction to the text, the author mentions 8 devices and names them variously as Tantrasampat, Tantraguṇa and Tantrayukti.

(viii) Tantrayuktivicāra

It is an independent text on Tatnrayukti-s. It was written by Nīlamegha Bhiṣak. His definitions and illustrations follow the Carakasaṃhitā. He has enlisted thirty-six Tantrayukti-s in his treatise. He composed his work during 9th century C.E.

 There is another independent text called Tantrayuktiḥ. The author of the text is unknown. So is the exact date of the work. This text also defines the Tantrayukti-s and it belongs to äyurveda tradition. In many places the definitions of this text differ from the previous one.

 (ix) iśvarapratyabhijñāvivṛtivimarśinī, Svacchandatantra and Vamakesvari-mata

These are the three texts of Tantraśāstra that have made use of the anumata, which is one of the Tantrayukti-s.

Thus, right from 5^th century B.C.E to 10^th century C.E. century (i.e. for 1500 years) we find references of Tantrayukti-s. A doctrine that was in vogue for such a long period of time fell into disuse and was consequently forgotten.          

2. Pan Indian influence

The application of Tantrayukti-doctrine was not limited only to Saṃskṛta treatises. Ancient Tamil and Pali texts were are also directly or indirectly influenced by it.

Tamil texts

(i) Tolkappiyam, the oldest available Tamil work, deals with Tantrayukti-s in the Marapiyal chapter of Porulaṭikāram in Sūtra number 665. Tolkappianar also enlists 32 uttigal (yukti-s), a la Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya. But V.R. Ramachandra Dikshtar (The Journal of Oriental Research, Volume 4, 1930, p.82) opines that  only 22 uttigal of Tolkappiyam match with that of Arthaśāstra. The date of Tolkappiam has been fixed at 1^st century C.E.

(ii) Nannūl is another grammar text, which is second only to Tolkappiyam in the order of prominence in Tamil literature. This work is ascribed to Sage Pavananṭi. This text too mentions 32 Tantrayukti-s. The order of enumeration and treatment of Tandiravutti-s (Tantrayukti-s - as mentioned in Tamil texts) differ from that of Tolkappiyam. The date of Nannūl has been fixed at 6^th century C.E.

There are other texts in Tamil tradition that mention or make use of Tantrayuktis. Some of them are as follows, Māṟaṉalaṅkāram (1540-65 C.E), Yāpperuṅgalaggārigai (11^th century C.E), Ilakkaṇaviḷakkam (17^th century) and Cuvamināthaṃ These texts deal with poetics, prosody and grammar. Unlike the Samskrit tradition where the references for the utilization Tantrayuktis does not go beyond 9^th century CE in the Tamil tradition the reference is available until 17^th century. The text Ilakkaṇaviḷakkam was composed by Vaidyanātha Dīkṣitar in 17^th century.  

Pali texts

(iii) Petakopadeça and Nettipakarana are two Pāli texts on textual and exegetical methodology. It is considered as the Buddhist treatment upon the whole of Tantrayukti-s. (Indian Buddhisam, A.K.Wardner, p.no.319). The existence of Tantrayukti-s influenced doctrines in other literary traditions, opens up new area of comparative study and research. 

3. Holistic treatment of all aspects regarding ther composition of a systematic treatise

Tantrayukti-doctrine touches upon almost all aspects required for a systematic and compact treatise. Let us discuss this point with appropriate illustrations.

a. Yuktis that assist to define the basic structure of a work

Yukti-s  such as

प्रयोजनम्‌ – Objective of the treatise

अधिकरणं - Topic(s)

विधानं - arrangement (of the topics)

उद्देश:, निर्देश: - general pattern of enumeration.

aid the author to format a template based on which the whole text could be constructed. The structure of the text is hereby determined. It will be the foundation on which the superstructure of the treatise will stand.

Let us see how विधानं, one among the above yukti-s is employed in Arthaśāstra.

 Kauṭilya defines the Tantrayukti  विधानं as शास्त्रस्य प्रकरणानुपूर्वी विधानम्‌ - The statement of the order of enumeration of topics of the treatise is arrangement.  Käuöilya shows the place of application of this yukti in his own text. He named the first chapter as प्रकरणाधिकरणसमुद्देश: - The section of chapters and topics (of the work). In that, he enlists the topics as - विद्यासमुद्देश: (The chapter about knowledge), वृद्धसंयोग: (The chapter about the company of the elderly learned), इन्द्रियजय: (The chapter about conquering sense), अमात्योत्पत्ति: (The chapter about recruiting ministers), etc. Thus by enlisting the topic under discussion with the use of  the yukti - vidhana the reader gets a clear picture of the contents of the work.  

b. Yuktis for stating theories and rules

Any treatise, scientific or literary, would state certain principles, theories and rules on the basis of research, observation and contemplation. Tantrayukti-s take into account this aspect and provide various devices that would help to codify those observations. Some of them are as follows

a)       नियोग:  - Invariable rule

b)       अपवर्ग:  - Exceptions

c)       विकल्प:  - optional rule

d)       उपदेश: - directives, prescriptions, advice (of do’s and don’ts)  

e)      स्वसंज्ञा – technical term.

Let us take up an example. Suśruta defines and illustrates the Tantrayukti अपवर्ग:  (Exceptions) as employed by him in his treatise. अभिव्याप्याकर्षणमपवर्ग: - The restriction of a pervasive rule is exception. The place of application of the yuktis is in the context of prescribing medication for poisonous bites. Suśruta says

                          अस्वेद्या विषोपसृा अन्यत्र कीटविषादिति ¹⁶      

The rule is – Fomentation should not be applied to persons suffering from poisoning.

And the exception – But it should be applied to those suffering from insect poisoning. This is a sample of how these yuktis help to present the rules and observations.

c. Explanation of Various concepts

The mere statement of rule or observation or principles might be abstract. It should be accompanied by proper explanation. Tantrayukti doctrine had provision to help the author to explain his theory in unambiguous terms.  Yuktis such as 

   निर्वचनम्‌ - etymology of terms

पूर्वपक्ष: - Objections (provisional view)

अनुमतम्‌  - others’ opinion on the topic or the rule

उत्तरपक्ष: - answers (final view)

दृष्टान्तः - Use of Analogy, illustrations and examples, instances, are a few that assist explanation.

Let us consider the yukti-Anumata. It is defined by Kauṭilya as परमतमप्रतिषिद्धमनुमतम्‌. The statement of the view of others without negating it is agreement. Let us consider an example for this from  Aṣṭādhyāyī वकारयकारयोः पदान्तयोः अवर्णपूर्वयोः लोपो भवति शाकल्यस्य (8.3.19) is a Sūtra that states the deletion of the letters  य्‌ and व्‌ as the opinion of śākalya. It means that though Pāṇini has his own view regarding the deletion, he also agrees with the opinion of  śākalya. This is Anumata.

d. Yuktis for fine tuning diction and style of expression in a treatise.

Sometimes an author, anxious to explain a concept, might end up being too verbose and consequently making the concept unintelligible, defeating the very purpose of the treatise. A crisp presentation of concepts is essential. Further, Intelligent use of language generates interest in the mind of readers. Diction plays a vital part even in a scientific and theoretical work even though the ideas presented are about an abstract concept. A Saṃskṛta poet elaborates

                 स्फुटता न पदैरपाकृता न च न स्वीकृतमर्थगौरवम्‌॥

Crispness (of a language) is not obliterated by verbosity, nor is the depth of meaning that is intended to be conveyed is compromised (to attain crispness).

 Below are some Tantrayukti-s that would assist an author to that end. 

वाक्यशेष:  - Completion of a sentence

अर्थापत्ति: - implication

समुदायः - collection of ideas

अतिक्रन्तावेक्षणम्‌ - reference to a past statement

अनागतावेक्षणम्‌ - reference to a future statement 

Let us consider as an example वाक्यशेष:

It is defined by Suśruta as येन पदेनानुक्तेन वाक्यं समाप्यते स वाक्यशेष:. The (meaningful) completion of a sentence even in the absence of a word (which is understood).

Suśruta himself cites an example from his text for this yukti शिर:पाणिपादपार्श्वपृफ़ोरूदरोरसामित्युक्ते पुरुषग्रहणं विनापि गम्यते पुरुषस्येति। ^{18 “}When we say of the head, the hands, the legs, the sides, the back, the abdomen and the chest” it goes without saying that these are understood to be the parts of human beings and one does not have not expressly state it. In the chapter that deals with human ailments the limbs mentioned invariably point to that of a human only. Thus Vākyaśeṣa helps to avoid the statement of the obvious making the statement crisp. 

Thus by

a)      Helping to plan the basic structure of treatise

b)      Guiding to codify rules and observations

c)      Assisting to explain various concepts

and finally d) providing tools to fine tune diction and style of expression

the doctrine of Tantrayuktis serves as a systematic and complete text construction manual. The fourth salient feature of the Tantrayukti doctrine is its

 4. Adaptable to the nature of the text

The following words of Caraka are very significant.

तन्त्रे समासव्यासोक्ते भवन्त्येता हि कृत्स्नशः।

एकदेशने दृश्यन्ते समासाभिहिते तथा ॥ ¹⁹

“All these (Tantrayukti-s) occur in a scientific work in brief and in detail.  But only some of them occur in a work written in brief.”

The following scholarly observation drives home the same point 

 “It is not as if every item in the above list (of Tantrayukti-s) should have to be applied in the case of every work, nor in the same sequence. It only means that these are the methods of presentation of ideas in a work and shall have to be made use of appropriately as required in a context.” ²⁰

Thus, it is evident that the author can determine, depending upon the quantum and volume of the text, the number of yukti-s to be used. This plastic nature of Tantrayukti-s may be stated as one of the reasons for it being accepted as a standard and a reference manual for over millennium and half.  Further, the presence of these Tantrayukti-s seems to be one of the strongest reasons, for making Indian literature rich with scientific treatises, of which, as mentioned in the beginning; only 7% have seen the light of print.

Conclusion

Many more treatises of various scientific disciplines of India might have used these Tantrayukti-s. Study in this direction has just begun. Tantrayukti-s offer tremendous scope for further research. As Dr.W.K.Lele says “a comparative study of Tantrayukti doctrine and the modern research methodology of a doctoral thesis” ²¹ might give new guidelines to Indological research. Structural analysis of various ancient texts can be carried out with the help of Tantrayukti-s, which would help a proper understanding of those texts. Further, as mentioned earlier, comparative study of Samskrit-Tantrayukti doctrine and its counter parts in various other Indian literary traditions will give a better picture of literary interactions, influences and undercurrent that existed between those traditions.

 Finally, to quote, Mr. Earl R. McCormack, science advisor to the Governor of North Carolina (1985), USA, from his lecture ser

ies on ‘Myths of Science and technology’ in the University of Madras in 1985

“…modes of thinking from the Great Tradition (Indian tradition) are directly applicable to modern science and technology...” ²²

Tantrayukti-doctrine certainly seems, to be one such “directly applicable mode” of thinking which, if applied, would not only be an efficient tool for interpretation of ancient Indian scientific texts but would also be a catalyst to build ‘conceptual bridges’ between ancient and modern scientific traditions.

References:

1. Science texts in Sanskrit in the Manuscripts repositories of Kerala and Tamilnadu, SSES Research Centre, Chennai, 2000, Introduction

2. Science of Ancient India: Certain Novel Facets In Their Study, Dr.K.V.Sharma p.31, 32 Sanskrit in Technological Age, P.C.Muraleemadhavan. K.Sundareswaran,  New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2006, New Delhi

3. A History of Indian Logic, Dr. Satis Chandra Vidyabhushana, Motilal Banarsidas, 1970, Calcutta, p.24

 4. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, R.Shamashastrary, 1915, Government press, Bangalore

 5. Indian Dialectics: Methods of Philosophical Discussions, Esther Solomon, B.J.Institute of Learning and research, 1978, Ahmedabad

 6. Notes on Tantrayukti-s, The Adyar Library Bulletin, Vol. 31, Gerhard Obberhammar, 1967-68, p.600

 7. The Doctrine of Tantrayukti-s, Dr.W.K.Lele, 1981, Chaukhamba Surabharati Prakashan, Varanasi

8.      Tantrayuktivichära, Nélamegha, N.E.Muthuswamy, Publication Division, Government Ayurveda college, Trivandram, 1976

9.  Kautilya Arthashastra Revisited, Surendra Nath Mittal, PHISPC, 2000, New Delhi, p.23

 10.The Doctrine of Tantrayukti-s, Dr.W.K.Lele, 1981, Chaukhamba Surabharati Prakashan, Varanasi, p.19

11. Carakasaàhitä, siddhisthänam, uttaravastisiddhiù ,12 adhyäyaù, çlokaù 29, 30 païcamakhaëòaù, Edited and Revised by Kaviraja Narendranath Sengupta, Kaviraja Balaichandra Sengupta, caukhambä Orientalia väräëasé –1, 1991(Reprinted).

12. Tantrayukti, Introduction. p.1, Vaidyasarathi Press, Kottayam, 1949.

13. The Kauṭilya Arthaśāstra, Vol II, 1972, MLBD, Delhi
14. A History of Indian Logic, Dr. Satis Chandra Vidyabhushana, Motilal Banarsidas, 1970, Calcutta, p.24

15. The Doctrine of Tantrayukti-s, Dr.W.K.Lele, 1981, Chaukhamba Surabharati Prakashan, Varanasi, p.19

16. An English Translation of Sushruta Samhita, Voume III, Uttara Tantra, Kunjalal Bhishagratna, 1916, Calcutta, p.406-413 

17. Same as 11

18. Same as 16

19. Same as 11

20. Science of Ancient India: Certain Novel Facets In Their Study, Dr.K.V.Sharma, Sanskrit in Technological Age, P.C.Muraleemadhavan, N.K.Sundareswaran, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2006, New Delhi, p.31, 32

21. The Doctrine of Tantrayukti-s, Dr.W.K.Lele, 1981, Chaukhamba Surabharati Prakashan, Varanasi, p.19

22. Myths of Science and Technology, Earl MacCormac, Radhakrishnan Institute for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras, 1986.

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